There's More to EAP than meets the eye (or ear)!
Bob (R.R.) Jordan, Hon. Fellow, ELT Unit, University of Manchester
1. Introduction
In ESP SIG Newsletter No.6 (June 1996), Andy Gillett explained clearly the chief concerns of English for Academic Purposes ("What is EAP?"). He summarised the main areas: academic writing, listening, speaking, reading; in addition, testing and answering exam questions. In covering the essentials, he touched on several other important aspects e.g. text types, organisation, expressing degrees of certainty and doubt, etc.
It is some of these areas that I shall look at here. As with most subjects, the more carefully you examine something, the more complex it becomes. Although a general-isation is a good introduction for a student, more specific and often discipline-bound practice is needed. Much of this can be subsumed under the umbrella term "academic discourse and style".
2. Genre analysis
One productive area of EAP research since the 1980s has been genre analysis. This involves the study of how language is used and organised within particular settings e.g. particular types of text.
(i) Written English
Research, so far, has focused mainly on aspects of written academic English e.g. research articles, abstracts, textbooks. By investigating the structure of specific types of text, teachers and students are able to gain a clearer idea of the end-product that is aimed for. For example, Swales (1983, 1984) analysed the introductions to a number of academic articles and found that the majority of the short introductions followed a four-move pattern; he later modified this to three moves (Swales, 1990). The three moves are: 1. Establishing a territory 2. Establishing a niche 3. Occupying the niche.
Some of the activities that can help to raise students' awareness of aspects of genre have been suggested by Swales (1983,1984). Examples are:
Other useful investigations of written genre have been conducted by Dudley-Evans (1987), Hopkins & Dudley-Evans (1988), Brett (1994) and Hewings (1993).
(ii) Speech
Spoken language has received much less attention than written. However, Thompson (1994) has analysed the introductions to lectures as being an important aid in providing a framework and context for listeners. An example of elements in the structure of a lecture introduction is as follows:
|
announce topic |
indicate scope |
|
outline structure |
show importance/relevance of topic |
|
relate new to given |
refer to earlier lecture |
Thompson stresses the difficulties in trying to establish a pedagogic model because of the varied nature of lectures. However, by listening to examples of authentic lecture introductions and by note-taking practice, students' awareness of the overall framework can be raised.
(iii) Specific subjects
Research has been conducted into the genres of some specific subjects, notably economics and law. Some instances include the following.
(a) Economics
Hewings and Henderson (1987) compare economics textbooks and articles in bank reviews. Jordan (1988) looks at the structure of introductory paragraphs in economics essays. He also analyses the ways in which quotations in economics articles are presented (Jordan, 1990b). Dudley-Evans & Henderson (1990) also analyse economics articles looking, in particular, at the introductions to the articles.
(b) Law
Howe (1990; 1993) focused on the "problem question" in law and analysed the features of scripts from criminal law, public law, contract law, and tort. The "problem question" is a highly specialised genre and different from the essay in its structure. A useful account of genre analysis, both in academic and professional settings, is contained in Bhatia (1993).
3. Hedging/Vague language
An important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" (Skelton, 1988a, 1988b) or "vague language" (Channell, 1994). In other words, there is a need to indicate certainty or commitment in varying degrees, not simply by propositional statements.
Hyland (1994) analysed and compared a number of ESP and EAP textbooks to see the coverage given to hedging. He found that the main modal expressions used were (in descending order):
A comprehensive account of vague language is provided by Channell (1994). She considers the various uses of vague language over a wide area, including colloquialisms. She looks in detail at approximating quantities with:
Channell notes that vagueness can express politeness, and that it is essential for learners of English to understand this. Initial practice to raise students' awareness can include transformation exercises e.g. changing cautious sentences to definite ones; changing vague comments into precise ones. The reverse can also be done. The resulting differences in meaning can be fruitfully discussed. Several books give practice in these aspects (e.g. Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 1987; Jordan, I 990a).
4. Appropriacy and style
An area of considerable difficulty for many students is that of deciding what is appropriate language to use in academic writing. Appropriacy may not be easy to transfer from one academic culture to another: it takes time and experience.
The problem for many students is compounded by having to come to terms with the conventions of informal, spoken language if they are attending courses in Britain. These requirements then have to be adjusted to cater for the needs of a formal written style. It is small wonder that the styles are often confused.
Practical exercises can help to raise awareness of the differences between informal and formal language. For example, sentences or paragraphs can be selected from a variety of sources (unlabelled and mixed) and the students can be asked to identify the type of source and explain its distinguishing features. Various aspects can be discussed including punctuation, contractions, phrasal verbs, vocabulary, colloquialisms, and sentence length.
5. Academic culture
Academic culture consists of a shared experience and outlook with regard to the educational system, the subject to be studied, and the conventions associated with it. If a student enters this culture from a different one, there will inevitably be some false expectations or misunderstandings. These may relate to the organisation and system of the university or college, or the specific discipline that is being studied. Differences in learning styles are closely linked with some of the students' difficulties. Ballard & Clanchy (1984) note that if a student's learning approach is reproductive (e.g. rote learning), and if s/he is going to a system which is based on an analytical or speculative approach, adjustments will need to be made.
One area of potential difficulty is that of plagiarism. Particularly in Asia, there is respect for the printed word and authority. It is quite normal for students to quote extracts without feeling the need to give references. In addition, students often present extracts in an uncritical way (Cortazzi, 1990). The concept of plagiarism needs to be explained and practice given in making bibliographic references (e.g. see Hamp-Lyons & Courter, 1984; Swales & Feak, 1994).
Institutional academic conventions are also a source of confusion and are often not perceived by teachers. These may range from the titles of academic staff (think of the range of meanings and status of "professor" in the western world: compare the UK and the USA) to the routines of everyday academic life. For example, if a student is late for a seminar or tutorial, do you expect an apology or not? If one is expected, what form does it normally take? Is an appointment normally made to discuss research or studies? If your office door is closed, does this mean you are "not in" to students?
These seemingly small matters, cumulatively, can loom rather large for some students who may suffer from academic culture shock. Introspection, comparison and discussion can help to establish appropriate academic behaviour. Awareness-raising activities are more than half the battle in helping students to overcome feelings or alienation. Introspection is an aspect that I have concentrated on in my resource book for EAP teachers, "English for Academic Purposes", due out at the end of this year (Jordan, 1997).
References
Ballard, B & J Clanchy, 1984. Study Abroad: A Manual for Asian Students. Kuala Lumpur: Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad.Bhatia V K, 1993. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. London: Longman.
Brett P, 1994. A genre analysis of the results section of sociology articles. English for Specific Purposes, 13 (1).
Channell J, 1994. Vague Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cortazzi M, 1990. Cultural and educational expectations in the language classroom. In B Harrison (Ed.) Culture and the Language Classroom. ELT Documents, 132.
Dudley-Evans, T (Ed.) 1987. Genre analysis and ESP. English Language Research Journal, Vol 1.
Dudley-Evans T & W Henderson, 1990. The organisation of article introductions: evidence of change in economics writing. In T. Dudley-Evans & W Henderson (Eds.) The Language of Economics: the analysis of economics discourse. ELT Documents 134.
Hamp-Lyons L & K B Courter, 1984. Research Matters. Cambridge Mass.: Newbury House.
Hamp-Lyons L & B Heasley, 1987. Study Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hewings, A & W Henderson, 1987. A link between genre and schemata: a case study of economics text. In T. Dudley-Evans (Ed.) Genre Analysis and ESP. English Language Research Journal, Vol. 1.
Hewings M, 1993. The end! How to conclude a dissertation. In G M Blue (Ed.) Language, Learning and Success: studying through English, Developments in ELT. Hemel Hempstead: Phoenix ELT.
Hopkins A & T Dudley-Evans, 1988. A genre-based investigation of the discussion sections in articles and dissertations. The ESP Journal, 7 (2).
Howe, P M, 1990. The problem of the problem question in English for Academic Legal Purposes. English for Specific Purposes, 9(3).
Howe, P M, 1993. Planning a pre-sessional course in English for Academic Legal Purposes. In G M Blue (Ed.) Language, Learning and Success: Studying through English, Developments in ELT, Hemel Hempstead: Phoenix ELT.
Hyland K, 1994. Hedging in academic writing and EAP textbooks. English for Specific Purposes, 13(3).
Jordan, R R, 1988. The introductory paragraph in economics essays and examinations. In P C Robinson (Ed.) Academic writing: process and product, ELT Documents, 129.
Jordan, R R, 1990a. Academic writing course. London: Nelson/Longman, 2nd ed.
Jordan, R R, 199b. He said: quote ... unquote. In T. Dudley-Evans & W Henderson (Eds.) The language of economics: the analysis of economics discourse, ELT Documents, 134.
Jordan, R R, 1997. English for Academic Purposes: a guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skelton, J, 1988a. The care and maintenance of hedges. ELT Journal 42 (1).
Skelton, J, 1988b. Comments in academic articles. In P Grunwell (Ed.) Applied Linguistics in Society, British Studies in Applied Linguistics No. 3 London: CILT/BAAL.
Swales, J M, 1983. Developing materials for writing scholarly introductions. In R R Jordan (Ed.) Case Studies in ELT. London: Collins ELT.
Swales, J M, 1984. Research into the structure of introductions to journal articles and its application to the teaching of academic writing. In R Williams, J Swales & J Kirkman (Eds.) Common Ground: shared interests in ESP and communication studies, ELT Documents, 117.
Swales, I M, 1990. Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J M, & C B Feak, 1994. Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Thompson, S, 1994. Frameworks and contexts: a genre-based approach to analysing lecture introductions. English for Specific Purposes, 13(2).
Bob Jordan is a freelance writer and ELT consultant, specialising in LAP and ESP (Economics). Formerly he was Tutor in English to overseas students in the ELT unit at the University of Manchester, for 21 years. Prior to that he was a British Council English Language Officer, and served in Nepal and Sierra Leone. He also spent two years teaching English in Finland.
Bob Jordan (1996). There's More to EAP than meets the eye (or ear)! IATEFL ESP SIG Newsletter, 7, 17-20.