E-mail: xiuping.li@sunderland.ac.uk
The importance of understanding the features of Chinese learners has been increasingly recognised by many researchers with either the influx of more Chinese learners into foreign countries or the growing number of Chinese EFL learners inside China.
The work reported in this presentation is one part of a larger, ongoing, systemised research, the aim of which is mainly to provide cultural information on the use of rote learning (RL hereinafter) in China. The focus is on the research into memory strategies used by Chinese learners of English with particular reference to the beliefs/attitudes to RL based on the views from 100 Chinese EFL learners.
There may be a cultural element in the utilization of mnemonic strategies (Thompson 1987:48). For instance, speakers of languages whose cultures emphasize rote learning may be more reluctant to engage in visual and verbal elaboration on which various mnemonic devices are based.
For a study of the role of rote learning, China is a country which provides a uniquely favorable setting. This is because, regarding methods of learning, a salient feature of Chinese education is rote memorization as pointed out by many researchers (e.g.Gu & Johnson 1996; Martinsons 1996).
In previous studies, RL, which is one of the crucial characteristics of memory strategies in China, has been either ignored or overlooked, and described as a formidable obstacle to communicative strategies. Very few have considered rote learning from a positive view. Its role as an effective stimulus has so far been identified only in the initial stage of learning. Further, the literature indicates that previous studies seem very frugal in giving information about RL. There were no more description of RL than a few sentences or a short paragraph. The Confucian influence seems to be the only explanation for rote learning in China.
No specific or systematic study appears to have been carried out to focus on rote learning and discover precisely how and why rote learning is so popular in China.
The scarcity of research on the reliance or continued reliance on rote learning strategies, in particular, used by Chinese learners of English, were the primary reasons for conducting the study reported here.
On the basis of extensive literature review, it has the following research questions, hypothesis and aims:
The main hypothesis is that Chinese learners use more rote learning strategies than other memory strategies and Chinese cultural background is one of the factors in the formation of rote learning. Confucian-based cultural influence should be considered more positive than negative in China. The benefits of this method should be acknowledged.
memory strategy; rote learning; Chinese culture; Confucius and Confucianism
(Confucius and Confucianism)
Confucius, who lived 551-479BC, is known as the first teacher in China. From him grew Confucianism.
The principles of Confucianism are contained in the nine ancient Chinese works handed down by Confucius and his followers, who lived in an age of great philosophic activity. These writings can be divided into two groups: the Five Classics and the Four Books.
The Wu Ching (Five Classics), which originated before the time of Confucius, consist of the I Ching (Book of Changes), Shu Ching (Book of History), Shih Ching (Book of Poetry), Li Chi (Book of Rites), and Ch'un Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals). The I Ching is a manual of divination probably compiled before the 11th century BC; its supplementary philosophical portion, contained in a series of appendixes, may have been written later by Confucius and his disciples. The Shu Ching is a collection of ancient historical documents, and the Shih Ching, an anthology of ancient poems. The Li Chi deals with the principles of conduct, including those for public and private ceremonies; it was destroyed in the 3rd century BC, but presumably much of its material was preserved in a later compilation, the Record of Rites. The Ch'un Ch'iu, (Spring and Autumn Annals) the only work reputedly compiled by Confucius himself, is a chronicle of major historical events in feudal China from the 8th century BC to Confucius's death early in the 5th century BC.
The Shih Shu (Four Books) are compilations of the sayings of Confucius and Mencius and of commentaries by followers on their teachings, are the Lun Yü (Analects), a collection of maxims by Confucius that form the basis of his moral and political philosophy; Ta Hsüeh (The Great Learning) and Chung Yung (The Doctrine of the Mean), containing some of Confucius's philosophical utterances arranged systematically with comments and expositions by his disciples; and the Mencius (Book of Mencius), containing the teachings of one of Confucius's great followers.
The data for the study was obtained through the interviews of 100 Chinese learners in English Department at Shenyang University of Technology, China, and was analyzed using content analysis (which was adapted from Wenden 1987) in relation to the research questions and hypotheses. The use of interview was considered to be more directly relating to the working title as indicated above. Interviewing is one of the most commonly used survey methods in present-day qualitative research (see Dushku 2000:763). Interviewing is believed to provide information or reported behaviour, attitudes and beliefs, and contribute to an in-depth understanding of research participants’ perspectives or experiences.
The responses to if Chinese learners prefer more rote learning strategies than other memory strategies provided the following:
92% out of the total of 100% subjects strongly agree or agree. But there are more “Yes” (55%) than “No” (45%) responses to getting rid of RL. Actually the responses of 45% “No”come to support the use of RL in China by stating that they failed to try new strategies for several reasons.
Their individual views on RL from a cultural perspective were obtained to be highly controversial, but the results of discussion indicated more positive than negative. In particular, Confucianism has been identified as a cultural heritage in China and RL as an indispensable method in China.
1. Confucius’ authoritarian principles (unequal relationships between people) and the knowledge that was inner action led to (or degenerated into) RL. It is based on great respect for those teaching and passive subordination by those being taught. Students are expected to assimilate knowledge from their teachers, without questioning it. There arose the class of scribes who distinguished themselves not by personality but formal learning and maintained their prestige by a system of examinations.(This came to mean the study of ancient works, the pre-eminence of the scholar and the students learn to imitate it. School learning produced an orthodox. The Analects, Mencius, Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean - these were invariably what were tested in imperial China. These four classics are diverse in content, but they all deal with personal cultivation and the handling of interpersonal relations, pragmatic political ideas, and utilitarian philosophical thoughts.
Traditional Chinese culture places a very high value on learning. In Confucianism, rules are spelled out for the social behaviour of every individual, governing the entire range of human interactions in society. The basic teaching of Confucius is distilled in the Five Constant Virtues: humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faithfulness (Li Wei, 1994). Confucius further defined five basic human relations and principles for each relation, called Wu Lun. The table below presents the five relationships.
|
Basic Human Relations |
Principles |
|---|---|
|
Sovereign and subject (or master and follower) |
Loyalty and duty |
|
Father and son |
Love and obedience |
|
Husband and wife |
Obligation and submission |
|
Elder and younger brothers |
Seniority and modelling subject |
|
Friend and friend |
Trust |
Source: Fan (2000:4)
(Martinsons 1996; Su 1998; http//www.easternreligions.com).
2. The views above could not completely obscure the source. Further, those views could be refuted by Confucius’ clear maxims which accentuate an advocate of using independent, practical principles and flexible learning skills rather than stressing passive Confucius laid the philosophical foundation for education in China. Even today, no one deny his unparalleled contribution to Chinese education. His sayings and maxims still govern the behaviour of learners in China.
There are many famous Confucius’ sayings which can be an aid to understand the genuine learning methods in China.
3. Confucius’ sayings and maxims, mostly from Analects.
Learning is most important
“Life is limited, while learning is limitless.” “ The worth of other pursuits is small; the study of books excels them all”. “It can not be a good jade without being carved.” “People can not be knowledgeable without learning.” “It is always useful to open a book.” And, “When the time comes to use your knowledge, you will regret how little you have read. ”
Respecting teachers
“Being the model for people to follow.” “Passing on knowledge” and “Showing the students through the door”. The good teacher should be the guide to the correct way to study and investigate.
Being modest and critical
“If three people go by, surely there is a teacher for me among them: I can choose something good about him and follow it, or something bad about him and change it.”
“When you meet a worthy person, focus on reaching his level. When you meet an unworthy person, take good look inside yourself.”
Being independent
“If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime.”
“He who depends on himself will attain the greatest happiness,” which indicate that learners should not heavily rely on the teachers, but themselves.
The relationship between teacher and students (not mere teacher-centred)
Confucius taught people to be polite while at the same time giving him a bit of free rein to learning. See the saying below:
To be a good teacher Confucius believed he had to continually be a good student. Thus one of his most important methods of teaching was to be an attentive listener in order to learn from his students how to teach them. “To listen silently, to learn untiringly, and to teach others without being wearied - that is just natural with me.”
Although most of Confucius’ teaching was through the conversational style, he once expressed the wish not to speak. One of his disciples immediately objected; they expected their teacher always to be talking with them so they could pass on his teachings. Confucius used the situation to call their attention to the silent teachings of Nature. “Does Heaven speak? Yet the four seasons run their course and all creatures are born according to it. Does Heaven speak?” “Be of an active nature and fond of learning. Be humble and not hesitate to ask those may be lesser than you are.”
Repetition and practising
“In learning and straightway practising is there not pleasure also?”
Learning and thinking
“Learning without thought brings ensnarement. Thought without learning totters.”
Reviewing
The term “reviewing” refers to: “an activity that is used to encourage individuals to reflect, describe, analyse and communicate what they recently experience” (Greenaway 2000).
One famous Confucian saying is: “By reviewing the old, one learns the new”.
The results of this study indicate that Chinese EFL learners’ strategy use was shaped by the Chinese culture which influenced their beliefs and their views about learning English vocabulary.
4. There is a Chinese saying about moving on, “Make the past serve the present and foreign things serve China”, which could be modified as “Make the Chinese traditional values help the current learners, and make Western learning methods such as communicative/interaction strategies encourage Chinese students to be more flexible”.
Firstly, the subjects believe that RL is a practical and economical way to facilitate vocabulary acquisition.
Secondly, knowledge is consolidated by repeated encounters with, and attempts to understand information, ideas and experiences. The idea is that the more times we are exposed to material the deeper it will sink in.
Thirdly, it is often psychologically comforting at any age to learn a piece of text with new pattern drills, new words by heart, particularly if this is done in a group activity. With the accuracy in their mind, the confidence for interaction naturally forms
Fourthly, RL does not mean to impair one’s habit of thinking for the Chinese learners of English. By doing a lot of exercises and solving the problems, the learners use their brains properly and they know that education is meant to cultivate one’s thinking ability.
Based on the interviewee’s statements, the data was categorized into three groups:
The results of this study indicate that Chinese EFL learners’ strategy use was shaped by the Chinese culture which influenced their beliefs and their views about learning English vocabulary.
There are a number of obvious historical, pedagogical, and psychological reasons to continue the use of RL, the traditional learning strategies.
Several factors have been identified which contribute to the role of rote learning in China and its continued use. Chinese cultural background is only one of the factors being discussed here.
The findings suggest that Chinese learners of English generally hold highly positive attitudes towards rote learning. The paper concludes that Confucian-based cultural background is an understandably important factor in the formation of RL in China but that this fact should not lead to RL as a mere memorisation. The results gained through interviews are consistent with Confucian values. The findings indicate:
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