Rhetorical Functions in Academic Writing: Writing critically

Rhetorical functions in academic writing: Writing critically

Introduction: Bloom's Taxonomy

In 1956, Bloom developed a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour which is considered important in learning. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract levels, to the highest level which is classified as evaluation. Most university level writing needs to involve writing at this high level.

bloom

The six categories are listed in below. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulty. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place (Bloom, 1956, pp. 201-2070.

Category	Key Words	Associated Questions	Typical Question Instructions
Evaluation: Makes judgements about the value of ideas or materials for a given purpose in a given context. Presents and defends opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria. Compares and discriminates between ideas. Recognises subjectivity.	e.g. appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticises, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarises, supports.	Do you agree with the actions/outcomes ...? What is your opinion of ...? How would you prove/disprove ...? Evaluate the outcome....	advise assess estimate evaluate judge rate recommend
Synthesis: Puts parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure - compiles information together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions. Generalises from facts.	e.g. categorises, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organises, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganises, revises, rewrites, summarises, tells, writes.	What changes would you make to solve ...? What would happen if ...? Can you elaborate on the reason ...?	arrange compose construct create design formulate manage organise plan prepare set up
Analysis: Examines and breaks information into parts by identifying motives or causes; making inferences and finding evidence to support generalisations. Includes analysis of elements, relationships and organisational principles. Recognises hidden meanings. Distinguishes between facts and inferences.	e.g. analyses, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates.	What are the parts or features of ...? How is _______ related to ...? Can you show connection between ...? How would you compare/contrast ...?	analyse calculate categorise compare contrast criticise debate differentiate discuss distinguish examine experiment inspect question relate solve test
Application: Uses a concept in a new situation. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations. Applies general ideas to concrete situations. Applies what is discussed in one paper to another paper. Predicts probable effects. Solves problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way.	e.g. applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.	How would you use ...? What examples can you find to ...? Can you relate this information to the present situation?	apply demonstrate dramatise employ illustrate interpret operate practice schedule sketch use
Comprehension: Demonstrates understanding of facts and ideas by organising, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions and stating main ideas. States a problem in own words. Knows what is being communicated and can make use of materials or ideas without necessarily relating it to other materials or seeing further implications. It includes: translation of verbal material into symbolic statements; interpretation of data; extrapolation - trends and tendencies.	e.g. comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalises, gives examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarises, translates.	How would you classify the type of ...? What was the text about? Can you summarise the author's point of view?	classify describe distinguish explain express identify illustrate locate recognise report restate review tell translate
Knowledge: Recalls data or information. Shows knowledge of previously learned material by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers. Has knowledge of specific facts & terminology; knowledge of ways and means - conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology; knowledge of universals and abstractions - principles & generalisations, theories and structure.	e.g. defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, quotes, recalls, recognises, reproduces, selects, shows, states.	What is ...? How is ...? Where is ...? When did _______ happen?	define list name recall record relate repeat state underline

Therefore, in most academic writing it is important to analyse and evaluate or to write critically. Simple description is usually not enough (Woodward-Kron, 2002). This means making connections between theory and practice, drawing links between theories, as well as evaluating theories and research. It means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your own opinions based on what you have learned. Critical evaluation requires you to evaluate arguments, weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your evaluation.

When writing critically, you need to:

Analyse and categorise theories and research
Evaluate theories and research
Compare and contrast theories and research
Select from theories and research
Synthesise from theories and research
Make logical connections between theory and practice
Give opinions (positive and negative)
Provide evidence for these opinions
Indicate gaps in theories and research
Weigh evidence and come to conclusions

The following questions may be usefully asked about any text or author you refer to or make use of:

A Purpose and background

Why are you reading this text? What is your purpose?
What type of text is it: research report, essay, textbook, book review?
What do you know about the subject of the text?
What else has been written on the subject of the text?
What controversies exist in this area? How does this text fit in?

B The author and the text

Who is the author? What do you know about the author? What authority does the author have?
Who is the intended audience?
What is the author's purpose? Why has the text been written?
What is the source of the text? Is it reputable? Who is the publisher? What reputation to they have?
What is the date of publication? Is it appropriate to the argument?
What is the writer's attitude towards the topic?
What conclusions are drawn?

C Evidence used

Is there a clear distinction between fact and opinion?
Is evidence used to support arguments? How good is the evidence? Are all the points supported?
In an experimental study, was the sample size adequate and are the statistics reliable?
Are there any unsupported points? Are they well-known facts or generally accepted opinions?
How does the writer use other texts and other people's ideas?
Are the writer's conclusions reasonable in the light of the evidence presented?
How do the conclusions relate to other similar research?

D Assumptions made

What assumptions has the writer made? Are they valid?
What beliefs or values does the writer hold? Are they explicit?
Look at the language that is used, e.g. active/passive verbs, nominalisations, pronouns, ergative verbs, articles, etc. Is it always possible to identify particpants and processes? e.g. compare: the government increased taxes; they increased the taxes, taxes were increased; taxes increased; the taxes increased, there was an increase in taxes
Look for emphatic words such as it is obvious, definitely and of course.
Look for hedges: possible, might, perhaps.
Look for emotional arguments, use of maximisers: completely, absolutely, entirely, or minimisers: only, just, hardly, simply, merely.
How else could the text have been written?

As always, all your points of view must be supported.

Some subjects accept stronger criticism than others - find out about your own subject.

Example

Read the following example: Example 1.

Exercise

Try this exercise: Exercise 1

Language

Presenting another point of view

Some people
X
In a study of Y, X

maintain(s)
say(s)
argues(s)
assert(s)
believe(s)
claim(s)
point(s) out
is/are of the opinion
seem(s) to believe

that

…

It is the view of X
The opinion of X is
It can be argued
It has been suggested
It might be said

According to X

Commenting on another point of view

Negatively

They
He
She
X
This

is/are
may be
seem(s) to be
would seem to be

somewhat
rather

mistaken.
wrong.
rigid.
inadequate.

X's

approach
position
methods
beliefs

This
These views

is/are

open to doubt.
not always the case.
not necessarily true.
unlikely to be true.
highly debatable.
incorrect.
highly speculative.

cannot be upheld.

Serious

doubts
reservations

can
may

be raised against this.

I disagree with X when he

writes
says

that …

However,

it is clear

that …

One of the main arguments

against

X is that

…

One disadvantage of
Another point against
A further argument against
One other disadvantage of

X

is

…

One objection to this argument

Plus negative words: wrong, mistaken, false, erroneous, misplaced, inaccurate, incorrect, debatable, untrue, not the case.

By indicating a gap

One way to negatively evaluate an author is by indicating a lack of knowledge in a particular area

However little information
attention
work
research
data
....

few studies
investigations
researchers
attempts

The research
The previous research

has

tended to focus on
concentrated on
emphasised
been devoted to
...,
rather than on
as opposed to
....

These studies
Most studies

have

Although

the research
considerable research
the previous research

has

tended to focus on
concentrated on
emphasised
been devoted to
...,
rather less attention has been paid to

....

these studies
most studies

have

Plus negative words: little, few, inadequate, lack, insufficient, hardly.

Positively

I agree with X when he

writes
says

that …

X is certainly correct
X may be correct

when he

says

that …

in saying

One advantage of
Another point in favour of
A further argument supporting
One other advantage of
One of the main arguments in favour of

X

is

…

Plus positive words: correct, right, accurate.

Presenting own point of view

There are many reasons why …

It is

important
true
necessary
essential

to

remember
bear in mind
point out

that

…

The first thing
First of all,

we have
I would like

to consider

is

…

The first thing to be considered is

It is a fact
There is no doubt
I believe

that

…

The first reason why … is …

First of all, …

The second reason why … is …

Secondly, …

The most important …

In addition, …

Furthermore, …

What is more, …

Besides, …

Another reason is …

A further point is …

In all cases, points of view may be qualified and generalisations may be made. You may also have different degrees of certainty about your claims.

Back to Introduction

They He She X This		is/are may be seem(s) to be would seem to be	somewhat rather	mistaken. wrong. rigid. inadequate.
X's	approach position methods beliefs

Some people X In a study of Y, X	maintain(s) say(s) argues(s) assert(s) believe(s) claim(s) point(s) out is/are of the opinion seem(s) to believe	that	…
It is the view of X The opinion of X is It can be argued It has been suggested It might be said
According to X

This These views	is/are	open to doubt. not always the case. not necessarily true. unlikely to be true. highly debatable. incorrect. highly speculative.
	cannot be upheld.

One disadvantage of Another point against A further argument against One other disadvantage of	X	is	…
One objection to this argument

However	little	information attention work research data	....
	few	studies investigations researchers attempts

The research The previous research	has	tended to focus on concentrated on emphasised been devoted to	...,	rather than on as opposed to	....
These studies Most studies	have

Although	the research considerable research the previous research	has	tended to focus on concentrated on emphasised been devoted to	...,	rather less attention has been paid to	....
	these studies most studies	have

X is certainly correct X may be correct	when he	says	that …
	in saying

The first thing First of all,	we have I would like	to consider	is	…
The first thing to be considered is